The History of Skyscrapers

The History of Skyscrapers The primary high rises tall business structures withâ iron or steel systems happened in the late nineteenth and mid twentieth hundreds of years. The Chicago Home Insurance Building, finished in 1885, is commonly viewed as the primary present day high rise, despite the fact that it was just 10 stories high. Afterward, taller and taller structures were made conceivable through a progression of compositional and designing developments, including the innovation of the main procedure to mass-produce steel. Today, the tallest high rises on the planet approach and even surpass statures of 2,000 feet. High rise History A high rise is a tall business working with an iron or steel framework. They were made conceivable because of the Bessemer procedure of large scale manufacturing of steel beams. The first present day high rise was made in 1885, the 10-story Chicago Home Insurance Building.Early surviving high rises incorporate the 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis and the 1902 Flatiron Building in New York City.â First Skyscraper: Chicago Home Insurance Building The main tall structure upheld by basic steel was the Chicago Home Insurance Building, which was done in 1885. The structure was 10 stories tall and arrived at a stature of 138 feet. Two extra stories were included 1891, carrying the stature to 180 feet. The structure was destroyed in 1931 and supplanted with the Field Building, a much taller high rise with 45 stories. Early Skyscrapers <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/AzjMBJwkdPg1bcd4nuZTj8iBtGI=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-882633688-5c0f1b2d46e0fb0001e40376.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/1Z-oIrPSs9nPlHNAlHZVWGotfBg=/755x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-882633688-5c0f1b2d46e0fb0001e40376.jpg 755w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/hplnK-u5tcCaARcDpcSr-sRcBfg=/1210x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-882633688-5c0f1b2d46e0fb0001e40376.jpg 1210w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/Byfsl35wsNOL4zIeR-y-FuAoTMo=/2121x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-882633688-5c0f1b2d46e0fb0001e40376.jpg 2121w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/IXZ2wvvMfyd1F-6fCG_HnmselDk=/2121x1414/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-882633688-5c0f1b2d46e0fb0001e40376.jpg src=//:0 alt=New York Taxi and Flat Iron Building, New York, United States of America class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-7 information following container=true /> The Flat Iron Building, NYC. Barry Neal/Getty Images In spite of the fact that the main high rises were moderately little by todays principles, they denoted a significant turn in urban development and improvement. The absolute most remarkable early high rises were: Tacoma Building (Chicago): Constructed utilizing a bolted iron and steel outline, the Tacoma Building was structured by the major engineering firm Holabird Root.Rand McNally Building (Chicago): The Rand McNally Building, finished in 1889, was the primary high rise worked with an all-steel frame.The Masonic Temple Building (Chicago): Featuring business, office, and meeting space, the Masonic Temple was finished in 1892. For a period it was the tallest structure in Chicago.Tower Building (New York City): The Tower Building, finished in 1889, was the principal high rise in New York City.American Surety Building (New York City): At 300 feet tall, this 20-story building broke Chicagos stature record when it was finished in 1896.New York World Building (New York City): This structure was home to the New York World newspaper.Wainwright Building (St. Louis): This high rise, planned by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, is renowned for its earthenware veneer and ornamentation.Flatiron Building (New York City): The Flatiron Building is a triangular, steel-outline wonder that despite everything remains in Manhattan today. In 1989, it was made a National Historic Landmark. Mass Produced Steel Allows Construction of Skyscrapers <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/MjXfAfMbyBxVul8OiJ7Zo4UmNJ8=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-955127366-5c0f1a42c9e77c0001177d0e.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/RD4ZJ6KfyIgHfX309fGteoRf1kQ=/590x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-955127366-5c0f1a42c9e77c0001177d0e.jpg 590w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/AXlZtFyysDqwd4-HLuLaAGBhyys=/880x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-955127366-5c0f1a42c9e77c0001177d0e.jpg 880w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/BKoUftMJCFtQgpvjkzLtCExzU8I=/1463x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-955127366-5c0f1a42c9e77c0001177d0e.jpg 1463w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/jTV2jLPRchbpiWaDwFVH-2sYhLo=/2050x1463/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-955127366-5c0f1a42c9e77c0001177d0e.jpg src=//:0 alt=Portrait of Henry Bessemer, english designer class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-15 information following container=true /> Henry Bessemer. clu/Getty Images Development of high rises was made conceivable gratitude to Henry Bessemer, who designed the main procedure to mass-produce steel economically. An American, William Kelly, had held a patent for an arrangement of air blowing the carbon out of pig iron, however chapter 11 constrained Kelly to offer his patent to Bessemer, who had been chipping away at a comparative procedure for making steel. In 1855, Bessemer protected his own decarbonization procedure, using an impact of air. This advancement opened the entryway for developers to begin making taller and taller structures. Present day steel today is as yet made utilizing innovation dependent on Bessemers process. While â€Å"the Bessemer process† kept Bessemer’s name notable long after his demise, lesser realized today is the man who really utilized that procedure to advance the principal high rise: George A. Fuller. In the nineteenth century, development procedures called for outside dividers to convey the heap of a building’s weight. Fuller, be that as it may, had an alternate thought. He understood that structures could bear more weight-and along these lines take off higher-in the event that he utilized Bessemer steel bars to give structures a heap bearing skeleton within the structure. In 1889, Fuller raised the Tacoma Building, a replacement to the Home Insurance Building that turned into the main structure at any point manufactured where the outside dividers didn't convey the heaviness of the structure. Utilizing Bessemer steel bars, Fuller built up a method for making steel confines that would be utilized in resulting high rises. The Flatiron Buildingâ was one of New York Citys first high rises, worked in 1902 by Fullers building organization. Daniel H. Burnham was the central designer. Taller structures were additionally made conceivable by the creation of the electric lift in 1883, which decreased the measure of time it took to go among floors, and the innovation of electric lighting, which made it simpler to enlighten bigger spaces. Chicago School of Architecture A large number of the most punctual high rises were worked in a building style that came be known as the Chicago School. These steel-outline structures regularly highlighted earthenware outsides, fortified glass windows, and nitty gritty cornices. Engineers related with the Chicago School incorporate Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan (who structured the Old Chicago Stock Exchange Building), Henry Hobson Richardson, and John Wellborn Root. Structures in the Chicago style were worked in places as distant as Florida, Canada, and New Zealand.

Finding the function in dysfunction Essay Example For Students

Finding the capacity in brokenness Essay Clashes mix the heart, and it is this part of the play that controls the wants of both Josie and Phil. There is surely something else under the surface the eye to this difficulty tormented connection among father and little girl. An inebriated, grungy, forlorn Irishman, Phil wishes simply for his little girl to discover bliss in marriage, in spite of the fact that it would torment him to see her go. An uncommon look at this caring affectability is seen when Phil says Maybe hed like a fine solid attractive figure of a lady for a change, with excellent eyes and hair and teeth and a grin (ONeill 300). We will compose a custom exposition on Finding the capacity in brokenness explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now Despite the fact that keen to her dads abnormally benevolent commendations, Josie cannot remain to capitulate to habits and return the affable motion. Rather, Josie answers in a sneering way Thank you compassionate for the commendations. Presently I realize a dairy animals kicked you in the head (300). It is this failure to submissively acknowledge a commendation from her own dad that Josie gets prestigious for, and thusly the endless loop of insulting and verbally abusing proceeds between the pair. Not exclusively are the contrasts among Josie and Phil Hogan present, however they are important to see the characters in a genuine setting. The Hogans have no uncertainty persevered through numerous hardships during their years, in particular the death of Mrs. Hogan. With the end goal for ONeill to describe these individuals precisely, he should show the variable in their lives, for this situation being the demise of a friend or family member. In another short snapshot of sincere discussion, Josie and her dad think back about their lost cherished one in socialized terms: Hogan: A sweet lady. Do you recall her Josie? You were just a seemingly insignificant detail when she kicked the bucket. Josie: I recollect her well. She was the one could take care of you when youd get back home alcoholic and need to tear down the house for entertainment only. Hogan: Yes, she could do it, God favor her In the apparently undeniable connection among Josie and Phil Hogan, the dynamic factor for the pair to kill their barriers and talk about the issue is again found in a concise break from the outrage and harshness of their different collaborations. In a circuitous relationship to the play through his own life, ONeill again substitutes equals of his reality into A Moon for the Misbegotten. Jim Tyrones mother recounts his moms passing, an immediate mention to ONeills past: She had nobody however me. The elderly person was dead. My sibling had marriedhad a kidhad his own life to live she just had me to take care of things for her and deal with her (Bowen 138). ONeill had composed this about his own mom, so the association for the Hogan family to encounter a similar extraordinary hardship is just normal in ONeills style of show. In spite of all the pugnacious positions and conflicts of enthusiasm among Josie and her dad, they do identify with each other. Phil realizes his girl will never stop people in their tracks (for beautys purpose), yet he likewise comprehends her misfortune in not having a mother and living with four men the vast majority of her life. Phil Hogans furious responses are only a guard instrument to push Josie away it might be said that will make her need to be more in life than he has been to achieve something beneficial. Simultaneously, Josie tosses affronts at her dad along these lines. She positively doesn't hold a frail appearance, yet inside she is as human as the following young lady. Her reckless discusses sexual ability are simply a front to persuade individuals that she is in charge, in a real existence that has not followed a storybook rule using any and all means. The nonattendance of her mom and progressive loss of her siblings to this present reality set her in a place where she must be mindful and take care of things herself (this incorporates her dad), and clearly a refined lady couldnt handle such a weight. The way where ONeill bonds these two fundamental characters together through a tricky act of corrupting and insolent discourse is an extremely remarkable way to deal with demonstrating the adoration between them. .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .postImageUrl , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .focused content zone { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:hover , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:visited , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:active { border:0!important; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; change: darkness 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:active , .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:hover { murkiness: 1; progress: obscurity 250ms; webkit-progress: darkness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .focused content territory { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content improvement: underline; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-outskirt range: 3px; content adjust: focus; content embellishment: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .ub6cb6eca2ca002ee806c9ad6154b3f2a:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Analysis Of Mark Strand's Keeping Things Whole EssayThat is actually what the peruser must not dishonestly distinguish in A Moon for the Misbegotten, in light of the fact that in certainty their relationship is one of true consideration and sympathy, in spite of the fact that outwardly it is difficult to see. While the mantra of shouting and fussing remains constant for a significant part of the play, the dynamic part of the incidental earnest discussion makes the peruser stop and understand that there is a whole other world to Phil and Josie Hogan than simply being a couple of unbearable and unforgiving characte rs. In spite of the fact that the subject of adequacy may become possibly the most important factor about this production of contention in ONeills A Moon for the Misbegotten, you should likewise scrutinize the effect on the play without this part of the impeccably authentic dad/little girl relationship. In ONeills world, there is no space for considerate hawking when the subjects of family connections emerge, similarly as there was none for ONeill himself. A Moon for the Misbegotten is a play communicating the hardships and misfortunes of ONeills life, from the loss of his mom to the horrendous experience of losing his sibling, Jamie. It is through Phil and Josie Hogan that we come to comprehend an investigate Eugene ONeills personalities eye, and the play could doubtlessly not endure the trial of time without their superbly made broken relationship. Works Cited Bowen, Croswell. The Curse of the Misbegotten. New York: New York, 1959. Goldman, Arnold. The Vanity of Personality: The Development of Eugene ONeill. Eugene ONeill. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: New York, 1987. 37-58. ONeill, Eugene Gladstone. A Moon for the Misbegotten. Present day and Contemporary Drama. Ed. Miriam Gilbert, Carl H. Klaus, and Bradford S. Field, Jr. Boston: 1994. 294-332 1.

Understanding the Dimensions of Introversion & Shyness

Understanding the Dimensions of Introversion & Shyness Theories Personality Psychology Print Understanding the Dimensions of Introversion and Shyness By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Updated on May 05, 2019 Outgoing introverts do not lack confidence. Getty Images / Thomas Barwick More in Theories Personality Psychology Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Shyness and introversion are commonly mistaken as being the same thing. Shyness involves fear of negative evaluation (and is a milder form of social anxiety), whereas introversion refers to a tendency toward becoming over-stimulated and the need to be alone to gain energy. The opposite of shyness is being outgoing, while the opposite of introversion is extroversion. These concepts are similar but different. The outgoing person is not afraid of others and has a tendency to approachâ€"be it at a party, when meeting someone new, or when making plans with friends. The extrovert appears similar, often making friends easily. However, the core feature of the extrovert is a need for stimulation and time spent with others. This is reflected in brain neuroimaging studies that show different activation of areas of the brain in extroverts compared to introverts. To summarize, we can think of each of these concepts as follows: Shy: Fear of negative evaluation, a tendency toward avoidance. Outgoing: Tendency to approach others, no fear of being around other people. Introvert: Becomes easily overstimulated, needs time alone to regain energy after spending time with people. Extrovert: Need for stimulation, recharges by spending time with other people, feels depleted after spending too much time alone. Where do you think you fit in the introversion/extroversion and shy/outgoing dimensions? Obviously, we cant categorize people, but we can think of most individuals as leaning towards one of the following four groups: Outgoing Extrovert (no fear, need for stimulation)Shy Extrovert (fear, need for stimulation)Outgoing Introvert (no fear, easily overstimulated)Shy Introvert (fear, easily overstimulated) To help figure out which group you most closely match, Ive created a table that describes how a person leaning toward each category might respond to some typical social/interaction scenarios. Have a look below and see if any of the patterns sound right for you. Outgoing-Extrovert Shy-Extrovert Outgoing-Introvert Shy-Introvert At a party This is so much fun! I feel so energized. I can’t wait to talk to everyone. I love being around all these people, but I’m too scared to talk to them. I really enjoy talking and getting to know people one-on-one. The whole crowd scene is a bit overwhelming though. I wish I could just go home. It is exhausting being around all these people, and I am too nervous to talk to anyone. At the library I’m falling asleep. Who can I find to talk to? Maybe I should text someone. I wonder what Jenny/Tom is doing tonight. It’s pretty boring being at the library, but at least I can hide in a corner and not make a fool of myself. I love being at the library. I want to learn about so many topics. Maybe I should chat with the librarian, I bet she is a wealth of knowledge. I love being at the library. I can hide my nose in a book and read all day. I’m too scared to ask the librarian a question though. When the phone rings Oooh! I wonder who that could be. (Picks up after first ring). Hmmm. I wonder who that could be? I really want to find out, but I am afraid to answer the phone. (Picks up too late). Oh, I really hope that is Jane. I can’t wait to find out how her trip was. (Picks up after a few rings, lets Jane do most of the talking). Oh no. I can’t pick up the phone. What if I make a fool of myself. I don’t really want to talk to anyone anyway. (Lets it go to voicemail). Meeting someone for the first time (Walks over and introduces herself) “Hi, my name is Sarah, I grew up with Kate. What’s your name? (Waits nervously hoping to be introduced) “Nice to meet you.” (Waits for a quiet moment and introduces herself) “You have a lovely home. I noticed you have quite a collection of books, are you an avid reader? My name is Sarah by the way.” (Hides, hoping to avoid introductions) “Nice to meet you.” In a meeting at work I love meetings, it is great to be able to talk through ideas in a group. I like the give and take, and always do a fair share of the talking. I like getting together for meetings with everyone, but I’m too nervous to share my ideas. Meetings tire me out. I like to think ideas through before I share my thoughts, and it’s hard to do in a meeting. I always take notes, and then follow-up with people once I’ve had a chance to sort through everything. I am terrified of meetings. Not only is it too much listening to everyone banter about ideas, but I’m so nervous sitting there that I can’t even follow what is being said. I wish I could just hide at my desk.

America s Concern About Obesity - 937 Words

Do you ever wonder when you are reading a magazine or a book how did she get such an amazing body or why does she look so flawless? Instead of sharing points on all the hard work that women go through, the media make what they do or their routine look simpler than it really is. The media in this day and age, specifically focusing on print are often dishonest and hide how women got in great shape or how they look affect the viewers. Many find it interesting how the media portrays exercising and dieting. America’s concern about obesity has shocked many organizations, programs, and citizens to take demand. Most seems to know how to take action, for example, they know to monitor calorie intake and exercise daily. However, these ideas have been slower to reinforce. The print media have a big part in this because the consumers read about the actions taken by models and they try to also reinforce those things but, it does not give the consumers the results they hope for, so there is often lost hope. Many think that because the text states that physical activity is the same as working out. Physical Activity is defined as â€Å"any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure.† Exercising is defined as â€Å"physical activity that is done in order to become stronger and healthier.† Colleagues at The National Academies stated that there has been an overall decrease in physical activity during the past half century in the United States. An article fromShow MoreRelatedU.s School Food Regulation For Public Schools Essay1543 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican public schools have poor nutrition, and it causes obesity in teenagers. 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Teaching Philosophy Essay - 599 Words

Teaching Philosophy Philosophy of Education, is the exploration for the meaning of life. My personal philosophical views of education, is the love of teaching and learning. To serve as an mentor, confidant, instructor and to provide guidance in the area of education. To teach the younger generation that education can give great lifelong rewards. I hope to learn and expand my wisdom surrounding the aspect of education, through research, assignments and field experience. I plan to mold minds and encourage students, to better influence and instill within them that they are unique and special. During my career, students will be nurtured and supported, to grow and be the best possible adults that they can be. As an†¦show more content†¦Essentialism is developed through testing and to follow directions in a timely manner, and to conduct themselves in a well behaved manner, in order to better prepare them for the future. I plan to conduct easy readings for test this would help and encourage students, that learning to read is a good to for success. I hope to give each individual student my attention. During the essential phase subject areas will be explored in-depth and taught in a separate manner. My classroom will consist of colorful and stimulating bulletin boards to encourage the thought process. Students will feel secure and safe rules will be set within the first week of class and enforced through out the school year. Students will be expected to conduct themselves accordingly. Misbehavior will be dealt with in an assertive manner, although if students behave accordingly to classroom rules. The class will have positive rewards and many verbal praises. The seating will be arranged in an authoritarian fashion, in order to set rules. As the students and I, become more familiar with one another, and students act according to the rules set. The seating arrangement will be placed in a non-authoritarian fashion. As assignments and projects will be given, if funds from the government will not suffice for the classroom projects, I will try my best to assist the class. ThisShow MoreRelatedMy Teaching Philosophy1088 Words   |  5 PagesSince the beginning of my academic career, teaching has always been an important part of my academic duties. The interaction that I have with students is not only enjoyable to me, but it also gives me an invaluable perspective on the subjects I am teaching. Since I started my position at the Mathematical Institute at the University of Oxford, I have tutored in four classes across three semesters and supervised two projects, as detailed in my CV. I am also tutoring two new undergraduate classes inRead MoreEssay on Teaching Philosophy Statement1037 Words   |  5 PagesTeaching Philosophy Statement â€Å"Teaching is not a profession; it’s a passion. 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Night Creature Blue Moon Chapter 7 Free Essays

I didn’t like the sound of that. But lately, I hadn’t liked the sound of much. â€Å"What kind of problem?† His gaze scanned the tree line surrounding the town. We will write a custom essay sample on Night Creature: Blue Moon Chapter 7 or any similar topic only for you Order Now He held himself as still as a deer who had just heard the footfall of man. A statue poised for flight the instant the scent of danger wafted past a twitching nostril. Except Mandenauer would never be so gauche as to twitch. I couldn’t help myself. Even though I knew a wolf would never come this close to town, I followed his gaze. Despite the summer sunshine, the thickness of the forest meant that light did not penetrate past the first few rows of trees. Anything could be hiding in there, during the day as well as the night. When I glanced at Mandenauer again, he was watching me. â€Å"Rabies spreads like the plague, Officer, which will be quite a problem. Shall we?† He stepped onto the sidewalk and waited gallantly for me to join him. I stayed right where I was. â€Å"This isn’t rabies.† His frown was quickly suppressed behind a stoic mask. â€Å"And you would know that how?† â€Å"By researching rabies on the Internet. It isn’t hard.† â€Å"Of course not. All the knowledge of the universe is now on the Internet.† I suspected he was being sarcastic – I ought to know – however, his face revealed nothing of the sort. â€Å"The medical examiner?† he pressed. â€Å"Follow me.† Together we walked through the unusually deserted streets of Miniwa. It was three o’clock in the afternoon. Where was everybody? As we passed the Clip and Curl, Tina Wilson stuck out her silky auburn head. â€Å"Jessie.† She motioned for me to come closer. â€Å"What’s this I hear about a mad wolf?† Tina had been two years ahead of me at Miniwa High. She’d been popular, pretty, petite. Since I was none of the above, I was surprised she knew my name. She owned the Clip and Curl and spent her days making everyone else beautiful – or at least trying. For reasons that should be obvious, I’d never set foot in the place. â€Å"There isn’t a mad wolf,† I soothed. What there was I had no idea, but I didn’t need to tell her that. We were supposed to be keeping things quiet. Obviously that wasn’t going so well. In small towns like Miniwa, a secret was damn near impossible to maintain. But I’d hoped we’d have more than a day of peace. Tina’s gaze shot to Mandenauer. â€Å"Who’s he?† Mandenauer bowed. â€Å"Madam, I am the hunter-searcher hired by your Department of Natural Resources to kill the wolves.† â€Å"Wolves?† she squeaked. â€Å"You mean there’s more than one?† â€Å"There are plenty of wolves, Tina. You know that. But they don’t come into town. They’re more afraid of us than we are of them.† â€Å"That’s what I always hear after there’s an attack or a mauling. Doesn’t help Karen Larson though, does it?† Tina snapped, and slammed the door in my face. I rubbed the back of my neck. I hadn’t done a very good job of calming the populace. I started to have an inkling of how ugly things could get. â€Å"Rabid wolves are aggressive,† Mandenauer murmured. â€Å"They will come into town. They will attack people. They will attack anything.† â€Å"I thought we’d established that this wasn’t rabies?† â€Å"You established that, Officer, but if we aren’t dealing with rabies, then what are we dealing with?† I had no answer for that. Mandenauer gave a sharp nod and allowed me to precede him around the corner, down the street, and into the office of the medical examiner. Clyde, Bozeman, and his secretary were still there. When we walked in, every single one of them frowned. For whatever reason, Clyde no longer had his chew, which explained why he was crankier than usual. â€Å"I thought I told you to take him to the scene.† â€Å"And he told me to bring him here.† Clyde’s eyes narrowed. â€Å"Who’s your boss, Officer?† That tore it. â€Å"You know what?† I threw up my hands and headed for the door. â€Å"Take it up with Lurch. I’ve got work to do.† Mandenauer placed his hand on my arm again, the second time he’d done so in less than half an hour. I’m not big on touching. It makes me uncomfortable. Am I supposed to touch back? Let it happen? Move away? â€Å"Stay, Miss McQuade. Please. I have much to ask you.† â€Å"Miss?† The itty-bitty secretary snorted. Well, that just made me want to stay. â€Å"All right.† I shrugged and his hand slipped off my arm. â€Å"Sure.† Mandenauer’s lips twitched. Had that been a smile? Nah, probably just gas. â€Å"Now, Sheriff.† He turned to Clyde. â€Å"I hear there are no bodies for me to look over.† Clyde frowned. â€Å"Why do you need to see them? Go shoot the wolf.† â€Å"All in good time. I like to know every little thing about my quarry.† â€Å"It’s a wolf. What’s to know?† Mandenauer ignored him and turned to Bozeman. â€Å"What did you find when you examined the bodies?† Bozeman colored. â€Å"I, uh, well – â€Å" â€Å"He didn’t.† The words escaped my mouth before I could stop them. Honest. Mandenauer turned. â€Å"Did not find anything?† â€Å"Didn’t examine them. It was his day off.† Bozeman glared at me behind Mandenauer’s back. Nothing I hadn’t seen before. â€Å"I see,† Mandenauer said, though I could tell that he didn’t. Laziness was no doubt as abhorrent to him as it was to the rest of the population raised during the Great Depression. â€Å"If the bodies are found, they should be burned without further ado.† â€Å"Burned?† Clyde asked at the same time Bozeman said, â€Å"What about the autopsy?† â€Å"The autopsy would be useless with the decay that will no doubt have taken place in the summer heat.† Everyone winced at the thought. â€Å"It is best to bum them before the disease spreads.† â€Å"Since when does rabies spread through the air?† Clyde demanded. â€Å"Who is talking about rabies?† Clyde blinked. â€Å"Us?† Mandenauer shook his head and stared at Bozeman with exaggerated disappointment. â€Å"Doctor, haven’t you told the good sheriff what our dear Officer McQuade already knows?† The ME spread his hands and shrugged. Everyone looked at me. â€Å"Jessie?† Clyde’s voice held a note of warning. â€Å"What the hell is he talking about?† I hadn’t had a chance to tell Clyde everything I’d discovered – about rabies and totems and manitous. I’d left the theories out of my report. â€Å"Rabies has an incubation period of one to three months in humans.† â€Å"What?† Clyde shouted. Bozeman flinched. To be honest, so did I. â€Å"What kind of idiot are you?† Thankfully he was talking to Bozeman and not to me. â€Å"Here I am thinking we’ve got rabies on the loose and it can’t be, can it? You’re a goddamned doctor. You should know this.† â€Å"In my defense, Sheriff, rabies isn’t a common occurrence in humans these days. And when it does occur, the virus rarely results in death any longer.† â€Å"Tell it to Karen Larson,† I muttered. Bozeman’s glare was a replica of the first one. The man had no originality. â€Å"What are we dealing with then?† Clyde asked. â€Å"Kind of hard to tell without the bodies.† I batted my eyelashes at Bozeman and his itty-bitty secretary. She seemed to have nothing to say at last. In fact, she appeared a bit guilty. I guess I would, too, if dead bodies had gone missing on my watch. Bozeman shrugged. Clyde made a disgusted sound. Mandenauer cleared his throat. â€Å"I have an idea.† â€Å"Let’s hear it.† â€Å"Rabies.† Everyone in the room gaped. I wondered if Manden-auer had all his eggs in the carton, his beans in a bag, his wheels going round and round. â€Å"Sir – † I began. He held up one pale, slim hand and I shut my mouth. â€Å"It would be better if there were bodies. For proof. But based on what you’ve told me, I will make an educated guess on what we have here.† â€Å"Educated?† Bozeman sneered. â€Å"What kind of education do you have?† â€Å"Shut the hell up, Prescott.† Clyde rounded on him and the ME stumbled back, knocking into his secretary and sending her skinny ass flying about two feet. While the two of them got untangled, Clyde and I listened to Mandenauer. â€Å"I do not have the education of the good doctor.† â€Å"Lucky for us,† I said. This time Mandenauer smiled. I was sure of it. However, Clyde didn’t, so I zipped my lip. Again. â€Å"This is not for public knowledge, you understand. There would be a panic.† â€Å"Something I’d like to avoid,† Clyde mumbled. â€Å"Therefore, what I am about to say must stay in this room until we have the problem under control.† Mandenauer glanced at each of us in turn, and we nodded. â€Å"There is a new strain of rabies that matches what you seem to have here. The incubation period is hours instead of months. The level of aggression is intense, and the spread of the infection is beyond anything we have ever known.† â€Å"I’ve never heard of this,† Bozeman interjected. â€Å"Why am I not surprised?† I murmured; then a sud-den chill rode my spine. â€Å"Was this genetically engineered?† Mandenauer turned to me and in his usually distant gaze I saw a spark of interest. â€Å"Perhaps.† Clyde cursed. He was spending way too much time with Zee. Weren’t we all? â€Å"You’re saying that terrorists have infected the wolf population with genetically engineered rabies?† â€Å"Did I say that? I do not think so.† Clyde scrubbed a hand through his short, dark hair. â€Å"Then what are you saying?† â€Å"Evil has come to your town.† â€Å"How can a virus be evil?† I asked. Mandenauer glanced at me. â€Å"How indeed?† â€Å"Do you always answer a question with a question?† â€Å"Do I?† Clyde, who must have sensed I was near my boiling point, stepped between the two of us. â€Å"What should we do?† â€Å"Exactly what has been done. You have the best hunter there is.† Mandenauer slapped his chest with his palms. â€Å"I will kill anything that looks at me crosswise. Once ail the infected animals are dead, there will be nothing more to worry about.† â€Å"Except the people,† I muttered. Mandenauer let his hands fall slowly back to his sides and gazed at me with a curious expression. â€Å"What about the people?† â€Å"If someone gets infected, are you going to shoot them, too?† â€Å"No, they will use the rabies vaccine.† â€Å"That’ll help?† â€Å"It cannot hurt.† In my experience, whenever someone said that, it hurt. How to cite Night Creature: Blue Moon Chapter 7, Essay examples

Romeo and Juliet how Juliet develops through the play Essay Example For Students

Romeo and Juliet how Juliet develops through the play Essay The Elizabethan society was patriarchal, meaning that men were considered to be the leaders and women their inferiors. Women were regarded as the weaker sex, not just in terms of physical strength, but emotionally too. It was believed that women always needed someone to look after them. This is when our play is set so in theory Juliet should obey rules, but as we find out she does not always obey the times of the day just because she is a woman. Throughout this essay, I am going analyse the transformation of Juliet. The Prologue tells us that the prince is effectively wasting his time even thought he does not know it. So this shows the theme of destiny, linking to the prologue: star crossd lovers. This tells the audience that the pair of lovers are not meant to be together even before the play starts. We know from the start that she is going on a journey that will result in her transformation Juliets character in the beginning of the story conveys that she is a very obedient child, this is illustrated by, Madam, I am here what is your will? This conveys that Juliet is devoting herself to whatever may be asked of her. Also, the word Madam tells us that her family is of higher status in her house than others, so she is respectful and selfless. In this scene Juliet is also referred to as a lamb: I bade her come, what lamb. This reference to a lamb means that she is still young, it additionally shows purity. This is important, because later on in this scene they talk about marriage even though Juliet is so young. It also implies she is still in need of guidance. When Romeo arrives uninvited at the masked ball in act 1 scene 5, we start to see a change; this leads to the development of her character because her views on love change and, so does her personality. When Romeo meets Juliet, he wants to kiss her, concluding in Juliet starting to flirt with him, so she is learning about love: Lips that they must use in prayer. by saying this, Juliet is making a point that lips should not be used in kissing. This shows that she knows what is right, but even this does not stop her from kissing him. This shows that she is becoming more independent and acting on what she wants, rather than what anybody else wants. Her innocence appears to be slipping as she is flirtatious and disregards expectations of herself. When Romeos eyes fall upon Juliet, she is perceived as a woman and not as a girl this is illustrated by As a rich jewel in ethiops ear. This simile shows that she is now perceived as a very beautiful, young woman. A jewel suggests she beautiful and this is a trait typical of a woman and not a child so Shakespeare is hinting at her development. This shows that she is breaking the stereotype as shown in the first scene. Her being perceived as a women is quite different than in the begin of this play when she is recognized as a lamb, because a lamb represented her as a child. At the end of this scene Juliet shows more signs of developing her character. We know this from her asking her nurse names of the men when they are leaving but, this is just a clever trick she only wants to know the name of one person. This shows that she is breaking out of what people previously thought of her, a lamb, as she is being clever: a lamb is not clever as it usually follows its mother. When Juliet finds out that his name is Romeo and a Montague she exhibits decisive behaviors. This is evident from, My one true love from my only hate. This shows that Juliet has found someone whom she loves, and not someone chosen. So this is another example of her becoming more independent than she was at the beginning of the play. It also suggests that she is sensitive and perceptive of the danger that may follow. .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .postImageUrl , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:hover , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:visited , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:active { border:0!important; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:active , .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8b312276c8ec9ae19a15b4e24adbf19b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: How the characters actions and relations to the events portrayed in An Inspector Calls EssayJuliets character in act 2 scene 2 changes, due to the presence of Romeo. As Juliet changes in this scene she appears as being caught between her new found indedependence and her previous dependent state This is illustrated by Its too rash, too unadvised, too sudden. This captures that she knows that she is rushing but carries on This bad love. This shows naivety because she has realized that she is moving too quickly, yet she continues regardless. This adult situation is causing confusion within her Juliets character in the last scene showed confidence and that she was ready to denounce her family but this could change. Juliet changes into a different character because with her new secret marriage with Romeo, as she has to decide where her loyalties lie. In the beginning of this act 4 scene 2, Juliet is ready and waiting at this point she is anxious and she also she also exhibits desires of a mature woman, this is apparent from spread close curtain, love performing night. This suggests that she cant wait to consolidate her marriage with Romeo, so at this point in the scene she cant wait for him to come. This again links to the fact that she is not a lamb anymore; she is impatient and she is the one being followed. The alliteration emphasises her excitement and her new found passion. Later on in this scene, she is confused because she hears news that Romeo has killed Tybilt, here her maturity is tested as are her loyalties. This is illustrated by Beautiful tyrant. This oxymoron reflects her conflicting emotions towards love and Romeo. Juliet shows that she loves Romeo and almost takes sides but she is in two minds as she loves Romeo but as he has done such a bad thing a choice has to be made. She is torn by his double nature as he app ears angelical on the surface but obviously has the capacity for evil. This inner turmoil is evidence of Juliets struggle to transgress the boundaries of childhood. In act 4 scene 5 scene Juliet goes against what her father wants: in the Elizabethan era this would be considered wrong, this is because at the time women were below men in this patriarchal society. This means that she should do as she is told, in theory marrying Paris, but this turns into an argument between Juliet and her father. In this scene, Juliet has gone out, and the house thinks that she has gone to see the Friar but she has not, she has gone to see Romeo. This is yet again showing that she is deciding on what she wants to do rather than what everyone else wants her to do. She manipulates her family into thinking she went to the Friar for forgiveness; this is apparent from pardon I beseech you. This conveys that Juliet has become more disobedient because not only has she lied to her father, she is now pretending to beg for forgiveness, even thought she told Romeo that she is prepared to give up her family for him. But she is on her knees begging forgiveness, so not only is she disobedient to her family but to Romeo too. While growing up she is confused about where her loyalties lie, either with her family or her lover. Moreover she is being deceitful and cunning which is in complete contrast to how she was at the start. In this scene she appears desperate If all else fails, myself have the power to die this captures that Juliet is thoughtless, defiant and additionally shows that she cares about herself, so she is becoming more self-centered. This is also dramatic irony, as it is going to happen even thought she does not know yet. The audience registers this and it creates a sense of sadness. Additionally in this scene the nurse changes her position on Romeo which Juliet is not happy with and she becomes critical of the nurse and a gap between the two is evident due to her character evolution: Ancient damnation of o most wicked fiend. The language used shows that Juliet is being blunt about how she feels about the nurse. Her loyalties have changed. This shows that she is not happy with this; earlier on the nurse was saying how wonderful Romeo was, but all of a sudden she has changed sides. This is not good for Juliet because she thought that she could depend on the nurse so this is just another blow it must fell like everything that can go wrong is. This is ironic because everything that can go wrong will when she dies .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .postImageUrl , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:hover , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:visited , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:active { border:0!important; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:active , .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1 .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u281e65029df51159556c754fe80922f1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Miller Creates Dramatic Tension in this final act EssayIn act 4 scene 3, Juliet is worried about the plan and displays child like fear which is in opposition with her previously assertive personality: What if it be a poison which the friar subtly hath ministered to have me dead? This tells us that Juliet is worried because she could die, yet she decided to take what the Friar has giving to her because she thinks she has no choice this is another example of a dramatic irony. This creates tension plays with the audience. This also links in with the theme of destiny because no matter what she does she is going to die. This is because Juliet is going to die but she is worrying about it. This is very different from what she was thinking and behaving like in the beginning of the play: she used to be obedient and thinking about marriage but now she is disobedient and thinking about death. So throughout the course of this story we have seen Juliet change from an obedient girl who respects her mother and father. As the events take place, she very quickly becomes a very different person. This is all down to her meeting Romeo. If she had taken her parents word and just went with Paris, she would be fine, but this is not just her fault; if Romeo had not gate- crashed the party then he would not be in this mess too. So together they have both ended up in this mess. They both end up killing each other because they both wanted to love each other.

Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals

Introduction Buddhism and Hinduism are some of the popular religions in the world with their origins dating back to the Common Era in India. To some extent, these religions share similar ideologies and origin, even though Hinduism is older than Buddhism and ranks third in terms of popularity world.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite the various similarities between these two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism differ in certain aspects. Therefore, this essay compares and contrasts the religious practices and rituals of Buddhism and Hinduism. Comparison Similarities Buddhism and Hinduism share several similarities. For instance, these religions are polytheistic. The major gods are those related to compassion and wisdom in Buddhism. On the other hand, Hinduism has a god of reproduction, destruction and the Supreme deity. In addition , these religions share a belief in Samsara. This means that the process of birth has to be broken to achieve Moksha, which means the achievement of freedom. Both Hinduism and Buddhism share the belief of reincarnation. According to Buddhism, reincarnation is related to the present actions of a person while Hinduism believes that an individual lives in an impersonal world. Duiker and Spielvogel note that, â€Å"asceticism evolved into the modern practice of body training that we know as yoga (union), which is accepted today as a meaningful element of Hindu religious practice† (Duiker, and Spielvogel 42). Therefore, the body of a person transforms into another shape based on his or her actions. Both religions believe in salvation with Buddhists believing that each person has to strive for his or her salvation and cannot shift blames on others for religious failures. In addition, this salvation relates to the good actions of a person. According to Buddhism, each person must str ive to attain salvation based on his actions. However, an individual has to use four paths to attain this type of salvation. The first path is Raja Yoga, which means the path of salvation. In addition, there is Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga that mean the path of knowledge and love respectively. Karma Yoga means that a person attains salvation by pursuing good actions.Advertising Looking for assessment on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Besides, there is mediation in both religions as Duiker and Spielvogel observe in their analysis. Mediation is a religious practice that brings the believers close to nirvana. During the worshipping process, Hindu believers chant repeatedly the syllables â€Å"OM.† These syllables help them meditate with an aim of reaching a high standard of consciousness. The believers focus on inner awareness that connect them to the deity, which is achieved through focusing. According to the Hindu religious practices, mentioning the syllable draws an individual closer to the Supreme Being and closer to the truth of knowledge. This is similar to Buddhists who draw their inspiration from mediation. For instance, it is through this process that Buddha revealed the being of Dharma. Therefore, according to Buddhism, one has to concentrate on inward reflection to reveal nirvana. This means that Buddhism and Hinduism differ in the structure of their social system. However, they share similar religious beliefs of mediation, which are believed to bring about nirvana (salvation). Furthermore, both Hinduism and Buddhism share a belief on enlightenment. According to these religions, there are different ways through which one could achieve enlightenment. For instance, one can achieve it through overcoming emotions, passion, and having control over his or her senses. In addition, both religions share similar understanding of the cause of suffering. For example, both religions believe that a person suffers when he or she commits sin in the world. Therefore, these religions believe that people should get rid of illusion and the desires of the world. Moreover, they share similarities in the interpretation and practice of tantric. For instance, Tantrayan is a dominant sect in Buddhism. This sect bases its actions on tantric practices. Among Hindu believers, tantric is a common practice among those who worship Shiva and Kali. Differences According to Duiker, â€Å"Buddhists occasionally remark that someone who asks for a description does not understand the concept. At the same time, the new doctrine differed from existing practices in a number of key ways† (Duiker 48).Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the same note, Duiker observes that it seems likely that Hindu devotionalism rose precisely to comb at the inroads of Buddhism and reduce the latter’s appeal among the Indian population (Duiker 227) Based on these, the emergence of Buddhism challenged the existence of Hindu religious practices. The two religions have the rights of passage, even though the numbers and practices of these rights differ1. For instance, Hinduism has sixteen rites of passage that each member should go through in his or her life. For instance, Ashrama consist of four stages, which are vital for each person. These stages are student, householder, forest dweller, and sannyasin. On the other hand, Buddhism is more of a guide that directs how people should live. It provides three stages that direct a person to enlightenment. These steps include developing awareness of the past life, samsara, karma and Moksha. Therefore, whereas Hinduism is more of rights of passages, the steps presented by Buddhism are rules that guide people. Manu’s laws originate from Hinduism, which describe the karma. Manu developed these religious concepts based on legal standards. According to these guidelines, karma is the belief in the impacts of an action. Consequently, these laws have one major aim of improving Hindusdo good actions in order to avoid the negative impacts. Buddhists also share the concept of karma, even though the two religions differ in the system of caste. In Buddhism, there is division of the society based on castes. However, Hindus believe in the concept of the caste system. Because of these hierarchies, Hindu religion opposes intermarriages between ranks, something suggesting that intermarriages between members from different ranks are highly discouraged. They make traditional arrangements where a couple vows before a holy fire, which carries the vow to their deity.Advertising Looking for assessment on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As the couple draws closer to the sacred fire, God Agni keeps an eye on them in order to lead the family into a new life. In Buddhism, there are no ranking laws and marriage is allowed among various classes. However, they have significant ceremonies to mark the process of marriage. Nine Buddhists chant blessings to the bride and groom. They use holy water to bless the newly wedded couple. During the process, they offer presents to the monks. The wedding starts after this ceremony where monks tie a string on the arms of the couple as they make good wishes over their lives. Another difference between Buddhism and Hinduism is related to the ideas of anataman and anatta. Duiker and Spielvogel observe that, â€Å"Buddhism was probably able to stave off the Hindu challenge with its own Salvationist creed of Mahayana, which also emphasized the role of devotion, but the days of Buddhism as a dominant faith in the subcontinent were numbered† (Duiker and Spielvogel 241). This shows tha t the two religions were in constant competition over controlling the religious maters of the subcontinent. Hinduism supports the idea of self-determination, which leads a person to eternity meaning that an individual determines his or her own destiny2. The aim of Hinduism is to lead an individual to understand extreme truth through Moksha. However, Buddhist Theravada opposes the idea of self since the community should play a role in religious practices. Therefore, Hindus argue that everything is dynamic implying that the reality that human beings perceive is a phenomenon of a moment. In addition, Mahayan is very radical in interpreting the concept of self, which reflects the idea of emptiness. Conclusion Buddhism and Hinduism are ancient religions of India that resemble each other in various aspects, but differ in a number of ways, especially when it comes to practices. Buddhism is believed to have originated from Hinduism. However, despite these contrasts, these religions share ma ny similarities, as discussed in the previous section. Bibliography Duiker, William, and Spielvogel, Jakcson. The Essential World History. New York: Cengage Learning, 2013. Print. Footnotes 1 William, Duiker and Jackson, Spielvogel (The Essential World History 2013), p. 227. Hinduism has never appreciated the existence of Buddhism because it views it as a great threat. This explains why Hindu believers oppose it whenever they get an opportunity. 2  William, Duiker and Jackson, Spielvogel, The Essential World History (New York: Cengage Learning, 2013), p. 244. According to Hinduism, the community has no business interfering with the life of an individual because each person is expected to do as he or she wishes. It goes against the idea of following the established communal set of standards. This assessment on Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals was written and submitted by user Fernanda R. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Plantation Slavery essays

Plantation Slavery essays The institution of slavery was a dark time in our countrys past history. The many family members who have been affected by this brutal institution will never forget the scar it marked on our past. Due to the institution of slavery, many people today still feel bitterness because of the harshness these people had to endure and the atrocious way they were treated by their masters. Two conflicting sides on whether or not to keep the institution of slavery was forever prominent since slavery started in the colonies. Due to these two conflicting sides and the many disagreements, it seemed a Civil War was inevitable. To begin with slavery in America stems well back to when the New World was first discovered and was led by the country to start the African Slave Trade - Portugal. The African Slave Trade was first exploited for sugar plantations in the Caribbean, and eventually reached the southern coasts of America. The Portuguese showed the English how to raise sugar and introduced them to slavery on a large scale and for a time dominated the exportation and marketing of the crop. The African natives were of all ages and sexes. Women usually worked in the homes cooking and cleaning, while men were sent out into the plantations to farm. Young girls would usually help in the house also and young boys would help in the farm by bailing hay and loading wagons with crops. They were shipped from Africa by the Europeans, which quickly became known as "The Triangular Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade". This was an organized route where Europeans would travel to Africa bringing manufactured goods, capture Afr icans and take them to the Caribbean, and then take the crops and goods and bring them back to Europe. Planters were able to appropriate about 80 percent of their slaves labor for their own profit a rate exploitation that probably never been reached anywhere else, and because of these great profits slavery was able to continue. This...

BHS 411 Issues of Terrorism Mod 3 SLP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BHS 411 Issues of Terrorism Mod 3 SLP - Essay Example But there is no knowing what the target of the homicidal maniacs will be the next time around. â€Å"Political terrorism is not likely to disappear from the stage, but viewing it as a theater may help prevent mindless tragedies. Down go the houselights, up goes the curtain, and then—bang. The stage becomes alive with the sounds, the lights and the characters of a highly dramatic performance. The actors are political terrorists, protagonists of much modern tragedy, and their theater is the globe.† (Rubin Z. Jeffrey and Friedland Nehemia; â€Å"Theater of Terror†, Psychology Today; March 1986; p. 240) Whoever can be suspected of sponsoring terrorist attacks on the USA? True, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has been consistent in his anti-American stance. It has also been said that he has some mental health problems. But anti-American rhetoric need not necessarily translate into funding of terrorism against the USA. After all, his country is far too close to the USA for him to risk retaliation that could leave Venezuela reduced to rubble. Besides, whether or not he has mental health problems, he is not insane enough not to worry about the oil reserves in his country. Therefore, the obvious suspects need not necessarily prove guilty. Yes, Iran and North Korea are hostile enough to the USA to be expected to train and fund a terrorist attack on the USA, but the former looks far too obsessed with its nuclear ambitions to invite US retaliation; North Korea clearly lacks the resources to fund a terrorist attack. Does that mean the USA is more or less safe? No, it does not, for the very valid reason that international terrorist groups are, by and large, self-sufficient. For instance, not long ago it became known that the money that the oil-rich Saudis had given away in charity had found its way into terrorists’ coffers, and there are some rogue states willing to sell sophisticated arms to terrorist groups, little

Post 5 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Post 5 - Coursework Example The most important factor that is considered when arranging a marriage in India is the reputation of the family. It is evaluated that marriages can be arranged only if both the families have a same socio-economical status. The other factor includes the education, appearance, attitude and behavior of the bride and groom. Unlike the western society, a high level of care is exercised by the parents in selecting an appropriate mate for their children, as stated by Serena Nanda’s friend â€Å"you American wants everything done so quickly, you get married quickly and then just as quickly get divorced. Here we take marriage more seriously. We must take all the factors into account. It is not enough for us to learn by our mistakes. This is too serious a business. If a mistake is made we have not only ruined the life of our son or daughter, but we have spoiled the reputation of our family as well. And that will make it much harder for their brothers and sisters to get married. So we m ust be very careful† (Nanda). Research has evaluated that there are a number of advantages in the concept of arrange marriage because most of the Indian couple are living a successful life after their arrange marriages, however on the other side the only disadvantage with the arrange marriage is that, both the groom and bride are not provided enough time before their marriage to understand each other and their natures. Lassiter’s defined the concept of family and kinship as a situation where different people, whether directly or indirectly related to each other live together, he called kinship as a network of relatives. The network of relatives can be established through exercising marriages between the matrilineal and patrilineal descent of the family. He explained the marriages of individuals with their direct cousins, i.e. in a matrilineal descent system with the children of the mother’s sister’s children and similarly in the patrilineal decent system

Analysis Of The Elle Novel English Literature Essay

Analysis Of The Elle Novel English Literature Essay Douglas Glover is a known Canadian author of various fiction works that has capture readers of different nationalities, belief and preferences. While there were many other works of Glover such as notes Home from a Prodigal Son, The Enamored Knight, and novels such as The Life and Times of Captain N and 16 Categories of Desire  [1]  , Elle, a novel based on a true or rather historic figure, Marguerite de Roberval, on her way to discovering Canada with her uncle, Jean-Franà §ois de la Rocque de Roberval.  [2]  In this novel, he seemed to present Canada is a satiric language with explicit and implicit intentions of ridiculing religion, faith and aboriginals. It described the moments of first contact and the discovery of Canada by the European adventurers. These were during the times of Jacques Cartiers last and rather tragic attempt to colonize Canada. This first contact was described in ways in what did Canada meant to European adventurers and what did Europeans meant to the countrys original habitants and the clash between these two groups; neither of them recognized each other as human.  [3]  Nevertheless, he associated religion, sex, and revenge in building an image of this newly discovered country or the New World. While excerpts of the story are loosely based on facts, the authors language of conviction has somehow made the story more vivid and looks like more true to life. The author practiced his freedom of expression by choosing to portray such part of history through a work of fiction. In the course of the story, he also used a great deal of latitude as a means to portray Canada. This is to describe the geographical location of the newly discovered country and to create a glimpse of seasonal experiences of the characters such as winter in portrayal of sadness and will for revenge. Moreover, use of latitude seemed to be used to express distance from the European origins of the characters. This latitudinal distance implicates cultural, traditional and civil differences. This further implies the width of territorial expansion attempts of Europe in the past and may be not so many years before modern times.  [4]   For me, as a reader of the novel, these instruments of literature used by the author affected my understanding of colonization, first contact, faith and religion as associated with lust, sex and may be, love. With the claim that the novel was based on facts, it has some effect for me to assume many events in the story to be true. In some sense I tend to forget it being a fiction and not a direct narration of history (perhaps except Elle turning literally or otherwise into a bear). This may be attributed to the loose boundaries set between imagination and fact. This confusion applies to the personalities used and the actual events narrated. In general, it will be safe to believe that majority of the accounts in the story were based on the authors imagination and not a simple re telling of written history. Nonetheless, this also gave me some sense of contempt to inhumane actions on both parties regardless of which side I may choose to give sympathy. If this will be the only book describing the first contact of Canada and its history, I will be facing realizations of the violent, lustful, and inhumane parts of history or the truths that perhaps will never be mentioned on ordinary history books.  [5]   I believe then, that the bigger purpose of the novel is to portray themes not mentioned in the usual history books. Hypocrisy and modesty aside, we can really assume that such themes like sex, violence, lust and other worldly human nature are inclusive of our history.  [6]  While other critics of Glover say that he did not include human nature to sympathize with in his novel Elle, I believe that these themes can be considered not less than parts of our character and human nature regardless of civilization, religion and nationality. Moreover, this is also to portray colonization not simply as expansion of territory. It means penetration in an existing culture or rather an intentional or unintentional exchange of culture between the two parties: the colony and colonizers. This is to emphasize that colonization is not a one way process or a transformation from the colonizers to the colony. Rather, it is an exchange or combination of tradition, belief, education and emotional strings. Other inspirations in the story may be the apparent expansion of trade and prosperity in the ancient times. Colonization and territorial expansion were oftentimes attributed to be acts of European explorers. These expeditions have made tremendous histories and stories worth telling and retelling until these modern times of 21st century. Many of these stories were descriptions of social contacts such as Elle and other novels such as Gullivers Travel. The Themes of the Story To be specific, the themes that I have observed in the novel include: aboriginals, religion, first contact, issues of gender, family, and sex. Among these themes, I see particular emphasis on religion and faith, issues of gender, and sex as individual values. On the other hand, aboriginals and first contact may refer to the authors portrayal of Canada at times of Europeans attempt for colonization. Aboriginals In terms of aboriginals, the author might have been inspired by the recent discovery of ancient pagan culture. Portrayal of public execution and burning were mentioned in the stories quite a number of times. Rituals of native people of the New World were also portrayed. This is expected as some aspects of the novel were inspired by the recent rediscovery of ancient pagan classics. These were subtle critic in the practice of religion and its impacts to human thinking. Religion Excessive practice of religious rituals may cause unfavorable effects on the believers just like Elles mother who got consumed to religious rituals and forgot her other responsibilities and may be, even lost her sanity and sense of reality. The novel seemed to portray religion as one of the causes why her mother did not care for her as a child. Her mother was addicted to religious rituals that were described in absurd way such as licking the foot of the statue of saints in church. Her father, busy with his own desires for expanding power, did not pay fatherly attention to her too. As a result, or may be because of other causes too, Elle was not a very good mother and did not grow closer to her children too.  [7]   The Protestant and Catholic religions were explicitly ridiculed using direct and yet satiric language. Elle had a priest lover. This is scandalous because of chastity and vow of celibacy imposed and believed to be practiced by the priests. Moreover, the novel also mentioned brutal punishment of Protestants because of simple rule breaking and actions not in accordance to its scriptures. Elle were fond of these and even said, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I thought the world to be a more exciting place for all the conflict and never missed a public burning or decapitation.  [8]  This was a portrayal in both implicit and explicit way that religion, sex and brutality are related. Family Moreover, these were the times when religion, greed for power and prosperity and all other arbitrary pleasures such as sex and money were favored more than ones own family. Parenting is a loose responsibility and not a highly regarded one. This is true in the case of Elle to her children and her from her parents. Her mother did not care for her because of her evident addiction or obsession to religious rituals. She was also not able to care for her children for reasons not explicitly stated in the story. I assume that it is an effect of her experiencing the same from her parents and her own experiences of violence and brutality in her exile. Inequality against Women Gender issues were also addressed in the novel. It portrayed how Europeans and Canadians treated women. In spite of membership to highly regarded and respected families and aristocratic upbringing, women suffer from violent and unequal treatment. They were vulnerable not only to sexual assaults but also to inequality to opportunities. In those times, women were not expected to take part to exhibitions, voyages and other privileges entitled only to male counter parts. But then again, headstrong girl as that of Elle strived to get some good treatment. This is in spite of her aristocratic upbringing; she grew up uniquely as a headstrong girl. While women were seen as sex objects, she in turn treated his lovers, her sex partners as well. In turn he also used men to satisfy her desire for good sex. She measure manhood in terms of size of penis and ability in love making.  [9]  Likewise, Catherine or Comes Winter, the native woman also experienced the same fate just like Elle. It was far easier to punish a woman with her life, including watching her loved ones to die. Sex and Lust Sex, on the other hand, seemed to serve as an escape for the characters. The main character seemed to satisfy her frustrations through having lustful sex. She seemed to find equality in sex where she is found in beauty and men make love to her the way she needed to be loved. This is to say that sex, in one way or another, is not just a language of the body. It may also be considered as psychological, a cure or rather means of psychological stress. Other themes I see in the novel include revenge and karma. The novel showed some sense of these themes when the General, to whom all sufferings of Elle were attributed to, was killed by a bear (which was apparently shown to be her other personality later on). The general was killed by a bear with a womans heart. The desire for revenge that was stated in the earlier part of the story was satisfied when the general thought of Elle while meeting his death. He was stabbed and acquired fatal blows- an uncomfortable death that Elle once desired to give him. Although it is uncertain if Elle is really the bear or otherwise, the end indeed justified the means because she seemed to be delighted with the news. Whether random Karma or intentional revenge, Elle would have felt the same: gratified and responsible. Emphases of the Novel With these themes, the emphasis of the story relied on human autonomy. Elle, in spite of being a woman with limited physical and may be emotional strength and opportunities, have means to do aberrations with liberty and autonomy as the justifications. Moreover, this can be associated with ones freedom of expression. Although this may not be easy and may even cause ones own life, fear of the consequences was the only barrier for freedom of expression. Likewise, there was also a thrust on human nature to appreciate worldly pleasures: power, territory, sex and lust and beauty. The Personality of Elle Elle is a French girl who was brought up by an aristocratic family. Her mother, addicted to spiritual and religious activities, did not serve to be a good mother to her. The same was true to his father who was paying more attention to reading books and extension of power. Hence, she grew up as a headstrong girl with means to get what she wants. See and react to things she just wanted to. She used sex and books as her escape to reality and thus giving her dreams uniquely hers. She enumerated her desires to be: mild intoxicants, good sex, witty conversation, cheap printed books, and front seat at public executions. Sex outside marriage was known as a sin but giving to lust and earthly desire, they still do it with promises of penance, confessions and indulgence. Yet, in spite of not having married, Elle had many lovers through out the story. It can also be observed that it was not really sex she was fond to. It may also be the desire to have a man on her feet because of her beauty. Or, in another perspective, she may also want to be the cause of mens weakness. Some of her lovers mentioned in the story were Richard, a tennis player. He was weak and easy to seduce. He has been in love with Elle since she was 13 but Elle made the first move and seduce him until the two have given in their lustful desires. Another one was the priest and a messenger of his father. He was way too old for Elle but she regarded him good for having a penis a size of a sparrow and for loving her well in bed. She also was related to the hunter in the remote island she took refuge into. He taught him some things about bears which may be the means of Elle of acquiring the violent ability of bears or even transforming into a bear.  [10]   Elles discovery of faith was not brought about by promising experiences but rather experiences that can be seen better off. However, her faith and epiphany could have been different, perhaps, narrower if experienced differently. Her discovery of faith by being in between the clash or exchange of corpses of Old and New World, through her exile and witnessing the same fate to another woman, and knowing the brutal fate of M. Cartier, caused her the deepest understanding of colonization and both partys resistance of treating each other human. The Vision of Canada These experiences of the character brought the readers, including me, to have more sympathy and deeper vision on Canada. The violence, deaths and degradation experienced by the native people in the hands of the European colonists. On the other hand, however, the colonizers such as Cartier also experienced a brutal fate. Hence, this novel, I think is contempt of the inhumane results of colonization. Canada is only one of the many countries that have experienced this vision. Perhaps all countries that have been attempted to be colonized launched some resistance forces. Each paid their part of violence and brutality in ancient history. However, these events served a deeper purpose to increase social contacts, expansion of trade and prosperity, and maximization of use of natural resources. Yet, as we can see it the modern times, such values, events, and themes may still be applicable. There is still an evident gender inequality, violence, scandals of religion until these times. Hence, such conflicts may also be addressed through rediscovering faith and understanding and paying respect with each other.

Grignard Reagent

1598 Organometallics 2009, 28, 1598–1605 CoVer Essay The Grignard Reagents Dietmar Seyferth Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 ReceiVed February 4, 2009 During the past 100 years the Grignard reagents probably have been the most widely used organometallic reagents. Most of them are easily prepared in ethereal solution (usually diethyl ether or, since the early 1950s, THF) by the reaction of an organic halide with metallic magnesium (eq 1).Table 1. Composition of Diethyl Ether Solutions of Various Grignard Reagents at Equilibrium (in mol %), 2RMgX h R2Mg + MgX2a RX in RX + Mg reacn CH3I C2H5I C2H5Br C2H5Cl n-C3H7I n-C3H7Br n-C3H7Cl C6H5I C6H5Br a RMgX 87. 0 43. 0 41. 0 15. 0 24. 0 24. 0 17. 0 38. 0 30. 0 R2Mg ) MgX2 6. 5 28. 5 29. 5 42. 5 38. 0 38. 0 41. 5 31. 0 35. 0 RX + Mg f RMgX (X ) Cl, Br, I) (1) Most of them are stable in ethereal solution (although atmospheric moisture and oxygen should be excluded) and in gene ral are quite reactive.Discovered by Victor Grignard at the University of Lyon in France in 1900,1 their ease of preparation and their broad applications in organic and organometallic synthesis made these new organomagnesium reagents an instant success. The importance of this contribution to synthetic chemistry was recognized very early, and for his discovery Grignard was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1912. Our cover molecule is the monomeric ethylmagnesium bromide bis(diethyl etherate) (1), whose solid-state molecular structure was determined by an X-ray diffraction study by Lloyd Guggenberger and RobertRundle in 1964 using crystals isolated from a diethyl ether solution of a C2H5Br/Mg reaction mixture by slow cooling with a stream of cold gaseous nitrogen. 2-4 Adapted from: Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1931, 64, 734. Wilhelm Schlenk and his son discovered 80 years ago, more than one magnesium-containing species exists in the diethyl ether solution of a Grignard reagent. 5 A redistribution of the substituents on magnesium takes place, and the RMgX species ends up in equilibrium with the two symmetrical species, the diorganomagnesium and the magnesium dihalide: the â€Å"Schlenk Equilibrium† (eq 2). 2RMgX h R2Mg + MgX2 (2) Generally written as â€Å"RMgX† in textbooks, monographs and research papers, the Grignard reagents in ethereal solution are more complicated than this simple formula indicates. As (1) (a) Grignard, V. Compt. rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. 1900, 130, ? 1322. (b) Grignard, V. Dissertation â€Å"Theses sur les combinaisons organo` magnesienes mixtes et leur application a des syntheses†, University of Lyon, ` ` Lyon, France, 1901. (2) (a) Guggenberger, L. J. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 5344. (b) Guggenberger, L. J. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1968, 90, 5375. 3) A crystalline solid, CH3MgI  · (n-C5H11)2O, was isolated and identi? ed as such by elemental analysis (Mg and I) in 1908 : Zerewitinoff, Th. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1908, 41, 2244. The oxonium structure The species that contain Mg-halogen bonds can be precipitated from Grignard reagent solutions in diethyl ether by the addition of 1,4-dioxane. An insoluble, polymeric 1,4-dioxane adduct is formed, leaving behind a solution of R2Mg5sa useful preparation of dialkyl- and diarylmagnesium reagents. 6 Wilhelm Schlenk, Jr. analyzed the 1,4-dioxane precipitations from a number of Grignard reagent solutions. Assuming that the precipitation is essentially instantaneous, i. e. , that the calculated R2Mg, MgX2, and RMgX percentages re? ect the actual composition of the Grignard reagent solution at equilibrium, Schlenk reported the compositions collected in Table 1. Direct evidence (5) Schlenk, W. ; Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1929, 62, 920. (6) (a) Cope, A. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1935, 57, 2238. (b) As Erwin Weiss found, evaporation of diethyl ether solutions of methyl- and ethylmagnesium bromide and chl oride at reduced pressure followed by heating of the colorless solid residues at ca. 00  °C and 0. 001 mmHg for several hours gave a mixture of the respective pure, solvent-free, polymeric R2Mg compounds and magnesium halides. The solid MgCl2 thus obtained differed from a sample obtained from a MgCl2 melt in that its lattice showed a strong stacking disorder. This form of MgCl2 had an extremely high surface area: Weiss, E. Chem. Ber. 1965, 98, 2805. (7) Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1931, 64, 734 Further additions to the examples in Table 1 were soon thereafter reported by other workers: (a) Noller, C. R. ; Hilmer, F. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1932, 54, 2503. (b) Johnson, G. O. Adkins, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1932, 54, 1943. (c) Cope, A. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1934, 56, 1578. was written for this compound. Earlier workers had isolated noncrystalline solid samples of etherates, e. g. , C2H5MgI  · (C2H5)2O and RMgI  · 2(C2H5)2O. (4) Other early Grignard reagent crystal structur es: (a) Stucky, G. D. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 4825 (C6H5MgBr  · 2Et2O). (b) Vallino, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 1969, 20, 1 (CH3MgBr  · 3THF). . 10. 1021/om900088z CCC: $40. 75 ? 2009 American Chemical Society Publication on Web 03/16/2009 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1599 Figure 1.Association of several Grignard compounds in tetrahydrofuran (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3847. ). that solutions of â€Å"CH3MgBr† in diethyl ether contain CH3MgBr and (CH3)2Mg was obtained by Ashby and co-workers by means of 1H NMR spectroscopic measurements at -105  °C. Solutions of â€Å"t-butylmagnesium chloride† in diethyl ether also were studied. 8 The tendency of the halide substituents in the RMgX and MgX2 species present in ethereal solution at equilibrium to form bridges between magnesium atoms, Mg-X-Mg, in a Lewis base/Lewis acid type interaction further complicates the nature of the Grignard reagent in ethereal solvents.In a very thorough study of the association factors of various Grignard reagents in diethyl ether and THF by careful ebullioscopic molecular weight measurements, Eugene Ashby and Frank Walker at the Georgia Institute of Technology found that monomeric, dimeric, and higher oligomeric species were present, depending on the solvent and the halogen and the organic substituents on the magnesium atom. 9 Included in this study along with data for the â€Å"RMgX† solutions were data for a few R2Mg compounds and for the magnesium dihalides.As Figure 1 shows, the observed association factor (the i value is the apparent molecular weight divided by the formula weight of the monoetherate) shows that the Grignard reagents and (C6H5)2Mg are close to monomeric in the relatively strong Lewis basic THF. The picture is quite different in diethyl ether solution (Figures 2 and 3), with association factors of 1 to nearly 4 for solute concentrations up to ca. 3 molal. It is not clear what these i values mean in terms of the a ctual species present in these solutions.On the assumption that the Schlenk equilibrium is operative in all cases, in view of the presence of a signi? cant concentration of MgX2, one cannot expect only simple solvated species of type i(R)Mg-X] n [ i (average n ) i). Toney and Stucky isolated crystals of a dimeric species, 2, from a solution of â€Å"C2H5MgBr† in di-n-butyl ether by addition of this solution to triethylamine. 10 The molecular Figure 2. Association of alkylmagnesium chlorides in diethyl ether. Demonstration of importance of halogen vs R group in determining the form of association in diethyl ether (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3848. ).Figure 3. Association of several alkyl- and arylmagnesium bromides and iodides and related magnesium compounds in diethyl ether (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3848. ). structure, as determined by X-ray analysis, contained a double Br bridge with the ethyl groups in a trans arrangement. That (8) In â€Å"CH3MgBr† solutions in d iethyl ether: (a) Ashby, E. C. ; Parrish, G. ; Walker, F. Chem. Commun. 1969, 1464. (b) â€Å"(CH3)3CMgCl† solutions in diethyl ether at-26  °C: Parris, G. ; Ashby, E. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 1206. (9) (a) Walker, F. W. ; Ashby, E. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3845. (b) Ashby, E. C. Bull. Soc.Chim. Fr. 1972, 2133 (review, in English). (c) Meisenheimer, J. ; Schlichenmaier. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1928, 61 (an earlier, similar, but more limited study in diethyl ether). more complicated structures can be present in an â€Å"RMgX† solution in diethyl ether was demonstrated by the determination of the X-ray crystal structure of a crystalline compound obtained from a THF solution of â€Å"C2H5MgCl† of composition C2H5Mg2Cl3. This compound was not a simple Cl-bridged dimer, as the empirical formula might suggest. Actually, it was a tetramer (Figure 4) in which the Mg atoms have a coordination number greater than 4. 1 There is a caveat, however: the species t hat crystallizes from a Grignard reagent solution does not necessarily directly re? ect what species are swimming around in the solution. The crystalline solid shown in Figure 4 could well have self-assembled during the crystallization process by combination of two molecules of the C2H5Mg2Cl3 dimer and not been present in solution at all. Even in the case of monomeric â€Å"RMgX† in THF solution, the Schlenk equilibrium will be operative and the strongly Lewis basic THF apparently prevents halide bridging between Mg atoms.Consequently, the (10) Toney, J. ; Stucky, G. D. Chem. Commun. 1967, 1168. (11) Toney, J. ; Stucky, G. D. J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 28, 5. 1600 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Scheme 1 Figure 4. Molecular structure of [C2H5Mg2Cl3(C4H8O)3]2, a tetrameric Grignard reagent. Modi? ed from Toney and Stucky (J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 28, 15. (copyright 1971, with permission from Elsevier)). presence of monomeric RMgX, R2Mg, and MgX2, all solvated, would resu lt in the measurement of an association factor of 1, as Walker and Ashby observed.There are so many factors that bear on the question of the constitution of a given Grignard reagent in ethereal solutionsthe Lewis basicity and steric properties of the ether solvent, the electronegativity and size of the halogen atom in RMgX, the nature and steric properties of the organic substituent on the magnesium atom. These will affect the magnitude of the equilibrium constant of the Schlenk equilibrium and the extent of Mg-X-Mg bridging. For most applications in synthetic chemistry it will suf? ce to take the easy way outsto regard and to write the Grignard reagent as RMgX.There is another interesting and useful property of ethereal Grignard reagent solutions. The magnesium species are weak electrolytes in such solvents of low dielectric constant, and â€Å"RMgX† solutions conduct an electric current. 12 The electrolysis of solutions of organomagnesium halides was studied in some detail by Kondyrew at the State Research Institute in Leningrad13 and by Ward Evans and his students at Northwestern University. 14 During the electrolysis, magnesium species migrate both to the cathode and to the anode. Scheme 1 shows the simplest picture based on RMgX. Metallic magnesium is formed at the cathode. 12) The earliest report appears to be a 1912 French paper: Jolibois, P. Compt. rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. 1912, 155, 213. See also: Nelson, ? J. M. ; Evans, W. V. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1917, 39, 82. (13) (a) Kondyrew, N. W. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1925, 58, 459. (b) Kondyrew, N. W. ; Manojew, D. P. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1925, 58, 464. (c) Kondyrew, N. W. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1928, 61, 208. (d) Kondyrew, N. W. ; Ssusi, A. K. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1929, 62, 1856. (14) The Evans group published many papers in J. Am. Chem. Soc. during the 1933-1942 period. See, for example: (a) Evans, W. V. ; Lee, F.H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1934, 56, 654. (b) Evans, W. V. ; Field, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc . 1936, 58, 720. (c) Evans, W. V. ; Braithwaite, D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 898. (d) Evans, W. V. ; Braithwaite, D. ; Field, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1940, 62, 534. (e) Evans, W. V. ; Pearson, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1942, 64, 2865. The alkyl radicals formed at the anode can undergo the usual alkyl radical processes of coupling (to R-R), disproportionation (to RH + R(-H)), or, if the anode is composed of a reactive metal such as zinc, aluminum, cadmium, or lead, they can attack the anode to form an organometallic compound.A graduate student of Evans, David G. Braithwaite, joined the Nalco Chemical Co. after he graduated and developed an electrolytic process for the commercialscale syntheses of tetramethyl- and tetraethyllead antiknock agents in which the respective alkyl Grignard reagents were electrolyzed in a mixed THF/diethylene glycol dimethyl ether solvent system using a lead anode and a steel cathode. 15 The reactions of the Grignard reagents with organic, organometallic, and ino rganic substrates and their applications are too numerous and varied to be covered here.Not only do they ? nd extensive use on a small to moderate scale in research laboratories but they also have been prepared and utilized on a large scale in diverse industrial processes. For the most part they react as nucleophilic reagents, as would be expected, on the basis of the polarity of the carbon-magnesium bond, C? –Mg? +. However, they also can undergo electron transfer reactions with appropriate electron-acceptor substrates. They are weak bases capable of deprotonating the stronger weak organic acids such as terminal acetylenes and cyclopentadiene.Their basicity can be enhanced (as can be the basicity of organolithium reagents) by the addition to RMgX solutions in ethers of additives such as hexamethylphosphoric triamide (HMPA) and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) or alkali-metal alkoxides. All such information can be found in books devoted solely or in part to Grignard reagents. 1 6 Two special topics are of current interest and merit special mention. (1) The preparation of highly functionalized organomagnesium reagents by Paul Knochel and his co-workers at the University of Munich17 by means of halogen-magnesium exchange (e. . , eq 3). The availability of reagents such as 3-8 (which must be utilized at low temperature) has added a new and spectacular dimension to Grignard reagent chemistry. (2) The synthesis of ole? ns, styrenes, 1,3-dienes and biaryl derivatives by the crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides. The crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides was discovered by Morris Kharasch and Charles Fuchs at the University of Chicago Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1601 Table 2.Transition Metal Halide Catalyzed Homocoupling of Phenylmagnesium Iodidea metal halide FeCl2 CoBr2 NiBr2 RuCl3 RhCl3 PdCl2 OsCl3 IrCl3 a amt, mol 0. 01 0. 01 0. 03 0. 0036 0. 0036 0. 00566 0. 00275 0. 003 amt of C6H5MgI, mol 0. 03 0. 03 0. 095 0. 0 108 0. 013 0. 0163 0. 007 0. 01 yield of biphenyl, % 98 98 100 99 97. 5 98 53 28 Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 957. in 1943 during the classic studies of Kharasch on the chemistry of Grignard reagents in the presence of transition-metal halides. 6b Kharasch and Fuchs found that arylmagnesium bromides in diethyl ether reacted readily with vinylic halides of type RCHdCHX and R2CdCHX (but not CH2dC(R)X) to give styrenes in 50-75% yield when the reactions were carried out in the presence of 5 mol % of CoCl2 (eq 4). 18It was reported that other metal halides (of iron, nickel, and chromium) also were effective catalysts of this cross-coupling reaction. Benzylmagnesium chloride also reacted in this manner with vinyl bromide to give PhCH2CHdCH2 in 75% yield.Alkylmagnesium halides such as cyclohexyl- and n-butylmagnesium bromide, on the other hand, gave only â€Å"small to negligible† yields of the expected coupling product. The ArMgBrderived biaryl usually was obtained as a byproduct in these reactions. Such homocoupling of arylmagnesium halides in the presence of a transition metal halide as well as copper and silver halides was a known reaction. It had been investigated in 1939 by Gilman and Lichtenwalter, who found that aryl Grignard reagents undergo homocoupling in the presence of ca. 0 mol % of various transition-metal halides in diethyl ether solution to give the respective biaryl in high yield in most cases (eq 5, Table 2). 19 The metal halide, in addition to being the needed catalyst precursor, also served as an oxidizing agent and, in some cases (CoBr2, NiCl2, RhCl3), formation of a black solid indicated complete reduction to the metal. not occur in the absence of the organic halide but in its presence was vigorously exothermic. The added organic halide was only partially consumed and did not show up in the biaryl product.When p-bromotoluene was added to a phenylmagnesium bromide/CoCl2 catalyst reaction mixture, only biphenyl was formed. A re markable reaction! smost likely a free radical process, as Kharasch suggested. The organic halide was believed to function as an oxidizing agent. This interesting, simple, and potentially useful cross-coupling reaction, as exempli? ed in eq 4, was not adopted by the synthetic organic community right away. After a long dormancy it was rediscovered some 30 years later by a number of groups in the USA, Japan, and France, all of whom apparently were not aware of the 1943 Kharasch/Fuchs JACS paper. 1 Transition-metal catalysts other than CoCl2 were used, but the concept and the basic reaction were the same. In 1971 Tamura and Kochi reported a thorough study of the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides catalyzed by soluble iron species in concentrations of ca. 10-4 M in THF at 0-25  °C. 26,27 Various Fe(III) compounds could be used as Fe catalyst precursors; the best were Fe(III) -diketonates such as Fe(RC(O)CHC(O)R)3 (R ) Ph, CH3, t-Bu). These exothermic reactions we re not free radical processes. The reactions of cis- and trans-propenyl bromide proceeded with retention of geometric con? uration (eqs 6 and 7) and were not adversely affected by the presence of 0. 4 M styrene. A ArMgBr + RCHdCHX 9 ArCHdCHR + MgBrX 8 (X ) Cl, Br) CoCl2 5 mol % (4) 2ArMgX + MXn f Ar-Ar + MgX2 + MXn-2 (5) A novel catalytic process for such ArMgX to Ar-Ar coupling was discovered by Kharasch and Fields when ethereal solutions of an aryl Grignard reagent that contained a catalytic amount (3 mol %) of CoCl2 were heated at re? ux for 1 h and then treated with an equivalent amount of an organic halide (C6H5Br, C2H5Br, i-C3H7Cl). 20 The coupling reaction to give Ar-Ar did (15) (a) Bott, L.L. Hydrocarbon Process. Petrol. Re? ner 1965, 44, 115. (b) Guccione, E. Chem. Eng. 1965, (June 21), 102. See also Part 2 of the tetraethyllead essay: (c) Seyferth, D. Organometallics 2003, 22, 5154 (pages 5172-5174). (16) (a) Krause, E. ; von Grosse, A. Die Chemie der metall-organischen Ve rbindungen; Gebruder Borntrager: Berlin, 1937; pp 14-61, 110-114. ? ? (b) Kharasch, M. S. ; Reinmuth, O. Grignard Reactions of Nonmetallic Substances; Prentice Hall: New York, 1954. (c) Handbook of Grignard Reagents; Silverman, G. S. , Rakita, P. E. , Eds. ; Dekker: New York, 1996. d) Grignard Reagents-New DeVelopments; Richey, H. G. , Ed. ; Wiley: Chichester, New York, 2000. (e) The Chemistry of Organomagnesium Compounds; Rappaport, Z. , Marek, L. , Eds. ; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2008. (17) Knochel, P. ; Dohle, W. ; Gommermann, N. ; Kneisel, F. F. ; Kopp, F. ; Korn, T. ; Sapountzis, J. ; Vu, V. A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 4302 (review). (18) Kharasch, M. S. ; Fuchs, C. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1943, 65, 504. (19) Gilman, H. ; Lichtenwalter, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 957. and earlier (back to 1914) references cited therein. 20) Kharasch, M. S. ; Fields, E. K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1941, 63, 2316. mechanism involving an organoiron(I) intermediate, obtained by reduction of the Fe(III) precursor by the Grignard reagent, was suggested. The results of a few experiments carried out on a 30-40 mmol scale (Table 3) showed that such iron-catalyzed reactions would be useful in the synthesis of ole? ns, but a broader study to optimize them and to broaden the scope of their application was not undertaken. The coupling of vinylic Grignard reagents with alkyl halides is catalyzed also by Ag(I) salts. 8 Thus, cis-propenylmagnesium (21) Two later â€Å"historical notes†22,23 and two book chapters24,25 that dealt with the cross-coupling reactions of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides also did not cite the Kharasch/Fuchs paper. (22) Tamao, K. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 27. (23) Murahashi, S. -I. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 27. (24) Kochi, J. K. Organometallic Mechanisms and Catalysis; Academic Press: New York, 1978; Chapter 14, Sections III and IV. (25) Hou, S. ; Negishi, E. -i. In Handbook of Organopalladium Chemistry; Negishi, E. -i. , Ed. , Wile y: New York, 2002; Vol. 1,Chapter III. 2. 6, pp 335408.As a historical note, the following quotation from this reference (p 335) is of interest: â€Å"Although the reaction of Grignard reagents with organic halides was shown to be catalyzed by various late transition metal compounds (the Kharasch reaction) in the 1950s, it was not until the early 1970s that the applicability of this catalytic method was extended to the cross-coupling involving alkenyl and aryl halides catalyzed by Ag, Fe and other late transition metals. † (26) (a) Kochi, J. ; Tamura, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 1487. (b) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. Synthesis, 1971, 303. (27) Full papers: (a) Neumann, S.M. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Org. Chem. 1975, 40, 599. (b) Smith, R. S. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Org. Chem. 1976, 41, 502. (c) Reviews: ref 24. (d) Kochi, J. K. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 11 (historical note). (28) (a) Whitesides, G. M. ; Casey, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1966, 88, 4541. (b) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. J. Am. Chem . Soc. 1971, 93, 1483. 1602 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Table 3. Alkenylation of Grignard Reagents using FeCl3 as Precatalyst (in THF)a R MgBr (amt, mmol) n-C6H13MgBr (40) CH2dCH(CH2)4MgBr (36) n-C6H13MgBr (40) a 1 R2Br (amt, mmol) CH2dCHBr (204) CH2dCHBr (102) CH3CHdCHBr (355)FeCl3 (amt, mmol) 0. 05 0. 05 0. 10 reacn temp,  °C 0 25 25 product (yield, %) n-C6H13CHdCH2 (83) CH2dCH(CH2)4CHdCH2 (64) n-C6H13CHdCHCH3 (67) (53/47 cis/trans mixture) Taken from: Synthesis 1971, 6, 303. Scheme 2 bromide reacted with methyl bromide in THF in the presence of an Ag(I) catalyst to give cis-butene-2, but a similar reaction of trans-propenylmagnesium bromide gave a 7:3 mixture of cisand trans-butene-2, respectively. 28b Apparently propenyl radicals were involved. A similar Grignard reagent based cross-coupling, ole? n synthesis in which a copper(I) catalyst was used was published by French workers. 9 Normant et al. reported that their reactions (e. g. , n-Bu(Et)CdCHI + i-PrMgCl in THF at -20  °C with a Cu(I) catalyst) proceeded with retention of con? guration. 29a For a reaction of CH3CHdC(CH3)MgCl with n-C3H7I in THF at 0  °C using CuI as catalyst, Linstrumelle reported that the coupling product obtained in 97% yield was 88% cis and 12% trans, while a similar reaction of CH2dC(CH3)MgBr with trans-n-C6H13CHdCHI gave a 4:1 trans/cis product. 29b TheuseofNi(II)catalystprecursorsforGrignardreagent-vinylic halide cross-coupling was reported in 1972 by Corriu and Masse30 and by Tamao, Sumitani, and Kumada. 1 The French group found Ni(II) acetylacetonate to be the most effective catalyst precursor, while the Japanese group favored a bis(tertiary phosphine)NiCl2 catalyst precursor and, especially, chelating diphosphine complexes such as (Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2)NiCl2. Reactions carried out in diethyl ether at re? ux generally gave excellent yields. This procedure has been carried out commercially on an industrial scale in the preparation of p-chloroand p-tert-butylstyrene. 3 2 Finally, the last to be discovered at that time and the most versatile procedure for the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents (29) (a) Normant, J. F. Commercon, A. ; Cahiez, G. ; Villieras, J. Compt. ? rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. , Ser. C 1974, 278, 967. (b) Derguini? Boumechal, F. ; Linstrumelle, G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1976, 3225. (30) Corriu, R. J. P. ; Masse, J. P. J. Chem. Soc. , Chem. Commun. 1972, 144. (31) (a) Tamao, K. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, 1375. (b) See also ref 22. Later work: (c) Tamao, K. ; Kiso, Y. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, 9268. (d) Kiso, Y. ; Tamao, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 1973, 50, C12. (e) Kiso, Y. ; Tamao, K. ; Miyake, N. ; Yamamoto, K. ; Kumada, M. Tetrahedron Lett. 974, (No. 1), 3. (f) Tamao, K. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kiso, Y. ; Zembayashi, M. ; Fujioka, A. ; Kodama, S. ; Nakajima, I. ; Minato, A. ; Kumada, M. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1976, 49, 1958. (g) Tamao, K. ; Kodama, S. ; Nakajima, I. ; K umada, M. ; Minato, A. ; Suzuki, K. Tetrahedron 1982, 38, 3347. (32) Banno, T. ; Hayakawa; Umeno, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 288. (33) (a) Yamamura, M. ; Moritani, I. ; Murahashi, S. -I. J. Organomet. Chem. 1975, 91, C39. Full paper: (b) Murahashi, S. -I. ; Yamamura, M. ; Yanagisawa, K. -i. ; Mita, N. ; Kondo, K. J. Org. Chem. 1979, 44, 2408. (c) Historical note: ref 23. ith vinylic and aryl halides, that catalyzed by palladium complexes, was reported by Shun-Ichi Murahashi and coworkers in 1975. 33a The reactions were carried out in diethyl ether/benzene at room temperature using (Ph3P)4Pd as the catalyst precursor, and they proceeded stereospeci? cally in excellent yield (Scheme 2). Dang and Linstrumelle also used this procedure to prepare 1,3-dienes stereospeci? cally by the reaction of vinylic iodides with vinylic Grignard reagents. 34 Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides has been a very active area in organic synthesis.Reference 25 reviews (up to 2002) its application in (alkenyl) MgX-ArX, ArMgX-(alkenyl)X, and (alkenyl)MgX-(alkenyl)X coupling processes. A further chapter in this book deals with ArMgX-Ar? X coupling. 35 Another surge of research activity on cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides started around the turn of the century and still appears to be in progress at the present time (January 2009). Interest has revived in the use of iron complexes as precatalysts for the cross- and homocoupling of Grignard reagents,36 since iron complexes are cheaper than those of palladium and are nontoxic.The iron-catalyzed cross-coupling of organomagnesium bromides with vinylic bromides, although it produced ole? ns in good yield, was of interest to Jay Kochi, as noted above, primarily from the point of view of its reaction mechanism rather than of its potential for application in organic synthesis. After some 25 years several research groups carried out much experimental work which has shown iron-c atalyzed cross-coupling and homocoupling of Grignard reagents to be broadly applicable and very useful additions to the methods of organic synthesis.In 1995 Gerard Cahiez, at the Universite Pierre et Marie Curie ? ? in Paris, during the course of his extensive investigations of organomanganese chemistry, found that the cross-coupling of vinylic bromides with alkyl, vinylic, and phenylmanganese chlorides could be effected in good yield in the presence of 3 mol % of iron(III) acetylacetonate in a THF/N-methyl-2pyrrolidinone (NMP) mixed solvent at room temperature. 37 In a thorough study, this reaction was extended to the crosscoupling of vinylic halides with alkylmagnesium halides using 1 mol % of Fe(acac)3 and the same solvent mixture. 8 High yields of ole? nic products were obtained. Successful crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with AcO(CH2)6CHdCHCl, CH3C(O)(CH2)3CHdCHCl, Cl(CH2)4CBrdCH2, 9, and 10 are noteworthy as examples of the selectivity and functional group tolerance of this reaction. The scope of this chemistry was extended further when some of Knochel’s functionally substituted aryl Grignard reagents17 (vide supra) were reacted with vinylic bromides and iodides. 39 The cross-coupling reaction between aryl Grignard reagents and vinylic bromides and iodides also was found by Cahiez and co-workers to give ole? ic products in good yield with Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1603 Table 4. Iron-Catalyzed Biaryl Coupling Reactions a Table 5. Iron-Catalyzed Homocoupling of Grignard Reagents with Atmospheric Oxygen as Oxidanta a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13788. palladium or nickel precatalysts. 42 Of these procedures, that of Cahiez et al. 41f appears to be the most useful. Alkyl halide/ alkylmagnesium halide cross-coupling is not a practical process. 43 RMgX + R? X 9 R-R? + MgX2 8 [Fe] (8)Iron-catalyzed reactions of aryl Grignard reagents with aryl halides to give biaryls generally are not synthetically useful. The desired cross-co upling products are obtained in only poor yield, the main product being the homocoupled biaryl derived from the aryl Grignard reagent (eq 9) (recall the Gilman/ Lichtenwalter and Kharasch/Fields reactions, vide supra). ArMgX + Ar? X f Ar-Ar? + (low yield) (major Ar-Ar product) (9) a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 9844. retention of geometric con? guration when carried out in THF solution in the presence of 10 mol % of MnCl2. 0 As noted above, Kharasch and Fuchs had found that attempts to cross-couple aryl Grignard reagents with alkyl halides in the presence of catalytic amounts of CoCl2 were unsuccessful. On the other hand, such reactions do occur in the presence of an iron precatalyst and various additives (eq 8, R? ) alkyl), as summarized in ref 36. A number of other groups have reported the results of their research directed toward development of an effective procedure for the process shown in eq 8, all using an iron precatalyst of one kind or another, various additives such as TMEDA, NMP, etc. nd generally diethyl ether (but sometimes THF) as solvent. 41 It is noteworthy that primary and secondary alkyl halides, i. e. , ones that contain hydrogen substituents on the carbon atom, can be cross-coupled with aryl Grignard reagents, a process that cannot be realized using (34) Dang, H. P. ; Linstrumelle, G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1978, 191. (35) Anastasia, L. ; Negishi, E. -i. Chapter II. 2. 5, pp 311-344, in ref 25. (To date palladium and nickel catalysts have been widely used to effect aryl-aryl cross-coupling reactions. However, arylmagnesium halides were found to undergo cross-coupling with aryl halides that contain electron-withdrawing activating substituents ortho or para with respect to the halogen substituent in the presence of 10 mol % of manganese(II) chloride (eq 10). 44 Cyclohexyl and 2-methylpropenyl Grignard reagents reacted with such substituted halobenzenes in a similar manner. Very (36) (a) Cahiez, G. ; Duplais, C. â€Å"Iron-Catalyzed Re actions of Grignard Reagents†, Chapter 13, pp 594-630 in ref 16e. (b) Furstner, A. ; Leitner, ? A. ; Mendez, M. ; Kraus, H. J. Am.Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 13856 (a long ? paper that brings an excellent discussion of the literature, of questions concerning mechanism, and original results). (c) Sherry, B. D. ; Furstner, ? A. Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, 1500. (37) Cahiez, G. ; Marquis, S. Tetrahedron Lett. 1996, 37, 1773. (38) Cahiez, G. ; Avedissian, H. Synthesis 1998, 1199. (39) Dohle, W. ; Kopp, F. ; Cahiez, G. ; Knochel, P. Synlett 2001, 1901. 1604 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Table 6. Manganese-Catalyzed Homocoupling of Grignard Reagents with Atmospheric Oxygen as Oxidanta Scheme 4THF to a mixture of 3 mol % of FeF3  · 3H2O and 9 mol % of an N-heterocyclic carbene (SIPr  · HCl). In one example, chlorobenzene (1. 0 equiv) and p-CH3C6H4MgBr (1. 2 equiv) were added to this catalyst system and the reaction mixture was stirred at 60  °C for 1 day. The desired product, p -CH3C6H4-C6H5, was obtained in 98% yield. The homocoupling product, biphenyl, was present only in trace amount, while CH3C6H4C6H4CH3 was formed in 3% yield. Some examples of the application of this remarkable reaction are shown in Table 4. Good results were obtained only with aryl chlorides.Aryl bromides and iodides gave low biaryl yields. A German group reported similar MnCl2-catalyzed cross-coupling between various heterocyclic chlorides and aryl as well as alkyl Grignard reagents: e. g. , eq 11. 46 a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13788. The homocoupling reaction of aryl Grignard reagents, mentioned earlier, also has received renewed attention recently, and synthetically useful procedures have resulted. Nagano and Hayashi developed a procedure in which the reaction is carried out in re? uxing diethyl ether in the presence of 1-5 mol % of FeCl3, NMP and 1. molar equiv of 1,2-dichloroethane (which serves as the oxidant). 47 Cahiez and co-workers have improved this procedu re by using THF as solvent, in which arylmagnesium halides, including the chlorides, are more easily prepared. 48 This procedure works well with Knochel’s functional arylmagnesium halides (Scheme 3). Of interest also is the clever construction of the tricyclic system 11 by intramolecular homocoupling (Scheme 4). (40) (a) Cahiez, G. ; Gager, O. ; Lecomte, F. Org. Lett. 2008, 10, 5255. (b) Alami, M. ; Ramiandrasoa, P. ; Cahiez, G. Synlett 1998, 325. 41) A selection: (a) Martin, R. ; Furstner, A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. ? 2004, 43, 3955 (see also ref 36b and references cited therein). (b) Nagano, T. ; Hayashi, T. Org. Lett. 2004, 6, 1297. (c) Bedford, R. B. ; Bruce, D. W. ; Frost, R. M. ; Goodby, J. W. ; Hird, M. Chem. Commun. 2004, 2822. (d) Nakamura, N. ; Matsuo, K. ; Ito, S. ; Nakamura, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 3686. (e) Bedford, R. B. ; Bruce, D. W. ; Frost, R. M. ; Hird, M. Chem. Commun. 2005, 4161. (f) Cahiez, G. ; Habiak, V. ; Duplais, C. ; Moyeux, A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4364. g) Cahiez, G. ; Duplais, C. ; Moyeux, A. Org. Lett. 2007, 9, 3253. (h) Guerinot, A. ; Reymond, S. ; Cossy, J. Angew. ? Chem. , Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 6521. (42) However, Terao and Kambe have recently developed new Pd- and Ni-based precatalyst systems which avoid the problem of -elimination of primary and secondary alkyl groups: Terao, J. ; Kambe, M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, 1545. (43) (a) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 31, 289. (b) Rollick, K. L. ; Nugent, W. A. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Organomet. Chem. 1982, 225, 279. (44) Cahiez, G. ; Lepifre, F. Ramiandrasoa, P. Synthesis 1999, 2138. (45) Hatakeyama, T. ; Nakamura, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 9844. (46) Rueping, M. ; Ieawsuwan, W. Synlett 2007, 247. (47) Nagano, T. ; Hiyama, T. Org. Lett. 2005, 7, 491. (48) Cahiez, G. ; Chaboche, C. ; Mahuteau-Betzer, F. Org. Lett. 2005, 7, 1943. Scheme 3 special, but generally applicable, reaction conditions developed by Japanese workers45 have ? nally prov ided the possibility of clean aryl-aryl cross-coupling reactions in which competitive homocoupling of the aryl Grignard reagent has been almost completely suppressed.In this procedure an active catalyst system was prepared by addition of 18 mol % of C2H5MgBr in Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1605 A further improvement resulted when it was found that atmospheric oxygen could replace the 1,2-dihaloethane as oxidant in the homocoupling of aryl, vinylic, and alkynyl Grignard reagents using either Fe or Mn catalyst precursors. 49 As Tables 5 and 6 show, this procedure gave excellent results. The most recent contribution to iron-catalyzed cross-coupling, which appeared during the preparation of the ? al draft of this paper, involves application of the old one-pot Barbier procedure in which FeCl3 served as precatalyst and stoichiometric amounts of magnesium turnings and TMEDA additive were used. A mixture of an alkyl and an aryl bromide was added to the mixture of precatalyst, TMEDA , magnesium, and solvent at 0  °C. Good yields of cross-coupled products were obtained. 50 There has been a great deal of activity in the areas of Grignard reagent/organic halide cross-coupling and aryl Grignard reagent homocoupling, and the coverage in this essay, whose focus is on the historical aspects, is far from exhaustive.Attention is called to the 2005 review by Frisch and Beller51 and especially (49) Cahiez, G. ; Moyeux, A. ; Buendia, J. ; Duplais, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13789. (50) Czaplik, W. M. ; Mayer, M. ; von Wangelin, A. J. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 607. (51) Frisch, A. C. ; Beller, M. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 674. to the recent Accounts of Chemical Research special issue on cross-coupling. 52 Since ? st reported in 1943, the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides, thanks to further development by many later workers, has become a broadly applicable, very useful reaction in organic synthesis. There is much more about Grign ard reagents that I have not covered: the various procedures used in their preparation, the mechanism of their formation (which is still controversial), the more complex organomagnesium compounds such as bis(cyclopentadienyl)magnesium, magnesium butadiene, and magnesium anthracene, and the many kinds of reactions that Grignard reagents have been reported to undergo.But this is only a short essay, and so I have been able to cover only a few selected topics, ones which I hope will be of interest to the reader. More information can be found in the books that I have cited earlier. 16 Acknowledgment. My thanks, as always, to Professor Arnold L. Rheingold for the cover ? gure. OM900088Z (52) Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, No. 11, 1439-1564, special issue. A collection of 11 reviews, many of them relevant to the subject matter of the present essay, with useful, up-to-date references.